Showing posts with label Experimental mothods/principles. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Experimental mothods/principles. Show all posts

Thursday, January 15, 2015

Confocal pinhole setting

small pinhole: high resolution
pinhole > 1 airy unit: for weak signal only
e.g. pinhole= 0.5 airy unit works well for strong signal

http://depts.washington.edu/keck/leica/pinhole.htm

Thursday, September 20, 2007

Old knowledge, but worth to save

碱裂解法抽提质粒原理

http://bbs.bioon.com/dispbbs.asp?BoardID=95&ID=85175&replyID=&skin=1

碱裂解法从大肠杆菌制备质粒,是从事分子生物学研究的实验室每天都要用的常规技术。为了方便理解,这里罗列一下碱法质粒抽提用到三种溶液: 溶液I,50 mM葡萄糖 /25 mM Tris-Cl / 10 mM EDTA,pH 8.0; 溶液II,0.2 N NaOH / 1% SDS; 溶液III,3M 醋酸钾 / 2 M 醋酸。

让我们先来看看溶液I的作用。任何生物化学反应,首先要控制好溶液的pH,因此用适当浓度的和适当pH值的Tris-Cl溶液,是再自然不过的了。那么50mM葡萄糖是干什么的呢?说起来不可思议,★加了葡萄糖后最大的好处只是悬浮后的大肠杆菌不会快速沉积到管子的底部。因此,如果溶液I中缺了葡萄糖其实对质粒的抽提本身而言,几乎没有任何影响。所以说溶液I中葡萄糖是可缺的。 那么EDTA呢?大家知道EDTA是Ca2+和Mg2+等二价金属离子的螯合剂,配在分子生物学试剂中的主要作用是:★抑制DNase的活性,和抑制微生物生长。在溶液I中加入高达 10 mM 的EDTA,无非就是要把大肠杆菌细胞中的所有二价金属离子都螯合掉。如果不加EDTA,其实也没什么大不了的,只要不磨洋工,只要是在不太长的时间里完成质粒抽提,就不用怕DNA会迅速被降解,因为最终溶解质粒的TE缓冲液中有EDTA。如果哪天你手上正好缺了溶液I,可不可以抽提质粒呢?实话告诉你,只要用等体积的水,或LB培养基来悬浮菌体就可以了。有一点不能忘的是,菌体一定要悬浮均匀,不能有结块。

轮到溶液II了。这是用新鲜的0.4 N的NaOH和2%的SDS等体积混合后使用的。要新从浓NaOH稀释制备0.4N的NaOH,无非是为了保证NaOH没有吸收空气中的CO2而减弱了碱性。很多人不知道其实破细胞的主要是碱,而不是SDS,所以才叫碱法抽提。★事实上NaOH是最佳的溶解细胞的试剂,不管是大肠杆菌还是哺乳动物细胞,碰到了碱都会几乎在瞬间就溶解,这是由于细胞膜发生了从bilayer(双层膜)结构向micelle(微囊)结构的相变化所导致。用了不新鲜的0.4 N NaOH,即便是有SDS也无法有效溶解大肠杆菌(不妨可以自己试一下),自然就难高效率抽提得到质粒。如果只用SDS当然也能抽提得到少量质粒,因为SDS也是碱性的,只是弱了点而已。很多人对NaOH的作用误以为是为了让基因组DNA变性,以便沉淀,这是由于没有正确理解一些书上的有关DNA变性复性的描述所导致。有人不禁要问,既然是NaOH溶解的细胞,那为什么要加SDS呢?那是为下一步操作做的铺垫。这一步要记住两点:第一,时间不能过长,千万不要这时候去接电话,因为在这样的碱性条件下基因组DN□断会慢慢断裂;第二,必须温柔混合(象对待女孩子一样),不然基因组DNA也会断裂。基因组DNA的断裂会带来麻烦,后面我再详细说明。

每个人都知道,溶液III加入后就会有大量的沉淀,但大部分人却不明白这沉淀的本质。最容易产生的误解是,当SDS碰到酸性后发生的沉淀。如果你这样怀疑,往1%的SDS溶液中加如2M的醋酸溶液看看就知道不是这么回事了。大量沉淀的出现,显然与SDS的加入有关系。如果在溶液II中不加SDS会怎样呢,也会有少量的沉淀,但量上要少得多,显然是盐析和酸变性沉淀出来的蛋白质。既然SDS不是遇酸发生的沉淀,那会不会是遇盐发生的沉淀呢?在1%的SDS溶液中慢慢加入5 N的NaCl,你会发现SDS在高盐浓度下是会产生沉淀的。因此高浓度的盐导致了SDS的沉淀。 但如果你加入的不是NaCl而是KCl,你会发现沉淀的量要多的多。这其实是十二烷基硫酸钠(sodium dodecyl sulfate)遇到钾离子后变成了十二烷基硫酸钾(potassium dodecylsulfate,PDS),而PDS是水不溶的,因此发生了沉淀。如此看来,★溶液III加入后的沉淀实际上是钾离子置换了SDS中的纳离子形成了不溶性的PDS,而高浓度的盐,使得沉淀更完全。大家知道SDS专门喜欢和蛋白质结合,平均两个氨基酸上结合一个SDS分子,钾钠离子置换所产生的大量沉淀自然就将绝大部分蛋白质沉淀了,让人高兴的是大肠杆菌的基因组DNA也一起被共沉淀了。这个过程不难想象,因为基因组DNA太长了,长长的DNA自然容易被PDS给共沉淀了,尽管SDS并不与DNA分子结合。 那么2M的醋酸又是为什么而加的呢?★是为了中和NaOH,因为长时间的碱性条件会打断DNA,所以要中和之。基因组DNA一旦发生断裂,只要是50-100 kb大小的片断,就没有办法再被PDS共沉淀了。所以碱处理的时间要短,而且不得激烈振荡,不然最后得到的质粒上总会有大量的基因组DNA混入,琼脂糖电泳可以观察到一条浓浓的总DNA条带。 很多人误认为是溶液III加入后基因组DNA无法快速复性就被沉淀了,这是天大的误会,因为变性的也好复性的也好,DNA分子在中性溶液中都是溶解的。NaOH本来是为了溶解细胞而用的,DNA分子的变性其实是个副产物,与它是不是沉淀下来其实没有关系。溶III加入并混合均匀后在冰上放置,目的是为了PDS沉淀更充分一点。不要以为PDS沉淀的形成就能将所有的蛋白质沉淀了,★其实还有很多蛋白质不能被沉淀,因此要用酚/氯仿/异戊醇进行抽提,然后进行酒精沉淀才能得到质量稳定的质粒DNA,不然时间一长就会因为混入的DNase而发生降解。

这里用25/24/1的酚/氯仿/异戊醇是有很多道理的,这里做个全面的介绍。 ★酚(Phenol)对蛋白质的变性作用远大于氯仿,按道理应该用酚来最大程度将蛋白质抽提掉,但是水饱和酚的比重略比水重,碰到高浓度的盐溶液(比如4M的异硫氰酸胍),离心后酚相会跑到上层,不利于含质粒的水相的回收;★但加入氯仿后可以增加比重,使得酚/氯仿始终在下层,方便水相的回收;★还有一点,酚与水有很大的互溶性,如果单独用酚抽提后会有大量的酚溶解到水相中,而酚会抑制很多酶反应(比如限制性酶切反应),应此如果单独用酚抽提后一定要用氯仿抽提一次将水相中的酚去除,而用酚/氯仿的混合液进行抽提,跑到水相中的酚则少得多,★微量的酚在乙醇沉淀时就会被除干净而不必担心酶切等反应不能正常进行。★至于异戊醇的添加,其作用主要是为了让离心后上下层的界面更加清晰,也方便了水相的回收。 ★回收后的水相含有足够多的盐,因此只要加入2倍体积的乙醇,在室温放置几分钟后离心就可以将质粒DNA沉淀出来。这时候如果放到-20℃,时间一长反而会导致大量盐的沉淀,这点不同于普通的DNA酒精沉淀回收,所以不要过分小心了。高浓度的盐会水合大量的水分子,因DNA分子之间就容易形成氢键而发生沉淀。如果沉淀,就用70%的乙醇多洗几次,每次在室温放置一个小时以上,并用tip将沉淀打碎,就能得到好的样品。得到的质粒样品一般用含RNase(50ug/ml)的TE缓冲液进行溶解,不然大量未降解的RNA会干扰电泳结果的。琼脂糖电泳进行鉴定质粒DNA时,多数情况下你能看到三条带,但千万不要认为你看到的是超螺旋、线性和开环这三条带。碱法抽提得到质粒样品中不含线性DNA,不信的话你用EcoRI来线性化质粒后再进行琼脂糖电泳,就会看到线性质粒DNA的位置与这三条带的位置不一样。其实这三条带以电泳速度的快慢而排序,分别是超螺旋、开环和复制中间体(即没有复制完全的两个质粒连在了一起)。如果你不小心在溶液II加入后过度振荡,会有第四条带,这条带泳动得较慢,远离这三条带,是20-100kb的大肠杆菌基因组DNA的片断。

Tuesday, September 18, 2007

In-vivo Electroporation

Through out my third rotation in CSHL, I made several constructs first, then tried in-vivo electroporation and finally successed. I did molecular myself, but this complicate experiment is done after watching the old technician doing this several times. He showed me this website, which I just came up and reminded me of writing something.
http://www.m.chiba-u.ac.jp/class/dev/in_vivo_electroporation.html

Weirdly, he can't get the GFP expressed in the brain using this methods. We just thought there're some problems: 1. CMV promoter is not good for electroporation. 2. Our techniques are not mature. He tried twice as many rats as me (I don't have time that much because of having classes and TA in stony brook). But you know what, at the last week of my rotation, the last mother rat give births, I did found that I got expression on the day before I leave!

Finally there is no regret in that rotation. I wrote a protocol and emailed the results altogether to the professor. I know he like me. Actually he feels very sorry of not being able to take me.

How to avoid Satellite colonies

Although I think satellite colonies don't bother. But I do found some knowledge useful.

Quoted from bioforum:

Ampicillin plates (100ug/mL) often show satellite colonies after incubating for more than 16 hours (my plates show satellites after 20 hours incubation). So it is better to incubate for a shorter period.

Use methicillin/ampicillin. I think it is available from Sigma. Bacteria that can grow in ampicillin can grow in met/amp, but you don't get satellite colonies.

We had the same problem and switched to carbenicillin, while using the same vecotr, and no more satellites but colony growth.

You could also try using carbenicillin instead of ampicillin. Carbenicillin is more stable than ampicillin and so would be effective for a longer period of time. It is, however, very much more expensive.

Tuesday, September 11, 2007

Reminder of Common knowledge

What is Blue/White colony selection (or screening) and how does it work?

The plasmid (or vector) used (pUC19 here) contains a gene called LacZ. The LacZ gene codes for the production of an enzyme called beta-galactosidase. This enzyme is made up of two fragments, alpha and omega. When the two fragments are associated they form a functional enzyme. Normally beta-galactosidase metabolizes galactose producing two products, lactose and glucose. Beta-galactosidase converts other substrates such as X-Gal (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-[beta]-D-galactopyranoside) into a colored product. X-Gal is a colorless modified galactose sugar, however, when it is metabolized by beta-galactosidase the products are a bright blue.

In order for the gene to be actively transcribed from the DNA and for the enzyme to be produced, an activator called IPTG (isopropyl-[beta]-D-thiogalactopyranoside) must be added. Both X-Gal and IPTG are delivered to the bacteria through the growth medium (generally a supplemented and enriched bacto-agar blend).

Within the LacZ gene there are multiple cloning sites where the plasmid may be cut and DNA may be added. This produces a plasmid with foreign DNA located within the LacZ gene. When transcription of the gene is activated by IPTG the foreign DNA that has been inserted is transcribed as well. When the gene is later translated into the enzyme the inserted DNA is translated as well. Because of its location within the enzyme the foreign DNA's translated protein product disrupts activity and function of the enzyme. The disrupted enzyme activity is observed as a white bacterial colony. (If the enzyme is functioning fully each colony is a bright blue color.) Very small inserts of foreign DNA may lead to light blue colonies.

http://www.geocities.com/jsonnentag/iguana/bluwht.htm

The last sentence "Very small inserts of foreign DNA may lead to light blue colonies. " actully still didn't explain our phenomena. Different things.